On some interesting data which confirm the imperialist character of Russia
An Article (with 3 Tables) by Michael Pröbsting, International Secretary of the Revolutionary Communist International Tendency (RCIT), 21 April 2022, www.thecommunists.net
The class character of Russia is one of the key issues in the current debate among Marxists. The RCIT has elaborated in a number of works, that Russia is not only a capitalist state but also an imperialist Great Power. We have explained that Russia’s imperialism has some peculiar features. [1] For example, its share in the global economy is smaller than its political or its military role. [2]
However, we insisted that even from a purely economic point of view there can be no doubt that Russia is an imperialist state. This is in full accordance with the Marxist theory of imperialism as it was developed by Lenin and later defended by Trotsky. The starting point of the Marxist analysis of imperialism is the formation of monopolies and their dominating role in the economy. Such Lenin wrote in Imperialism and the Split in Socialism – his most comprehensive theoretical essay on imperialism:
„We have to begin with as precise and full a definition of imperialism as possible. Imperialism is a specific historical stage of capitalism. Its specific character is threefold: imperialism is monopoly capitalism; parasitic, or decaying capitalism; moribund capitalism. The supplanting of free competition by monopoly is the fundamental economic feature, the quintessence of imperialism. Monopoly manifests itself in five principal forms: (1) cartels, syndicates and trusts—the concentration of production has reached a degree which gives rise to these monopolistic associations of capitalists; (2) the monopolistic position of the big banks—three, four or five giant banks manipulate the whole economic life of America, France, Germany; (3) seizure of the sources of raw material by the trusts and the financial oligarchy (finance capital is monopoly industrial capital merged with bank capital); (4) the (economic) partition of the world by the international cartels has begun. There are already over one hundred such international cartels, which command the entire world market and divide it “amicably” among themselves—until war redivides it. The export of capital, as distinct from the export of commodities under non-monopoly capitalism, is a highly characteristic phenomenon and is closely linked with the economic and territorial-political partition of the world; (5) the territorial partition of the world (colonies) is completed. “ [3]
Dominating role of monopolies in Russia’s economy
For these reasons, we have emphasized that the domination of an economy by monopolies is a key indicator for the imperialist character of a state. A recently published essay by Professor Stephen Crowley provides some interesting statistics which demonstrate the monopolistic character of Russia’s capital. In this essay, the author compares the degree of concentration of capital in Russia with that in other imperialist countries. As a measure for concentration of capital, Prof. Crowley looks at the size of manufacturing enterprises in terms of numbers of employment. He divides enterprises into several categories – those with more than 250 employees, those with 50-249 employees and those with less than 50 employees. [4]
The result of his analysis is that Russia has a substantial higher share of large enterprises (with more than 250 employees) than any other imperialist state! In Russia 80% of all manufacturing employees work in enterprises with more than 250 employees. This share is only 63% in the U.S., 54% in Germany, 49% in Japan and 45% in France. Even if we add the second category - enterprises with 50-249 employees – Russia still has a much larger concentration of capital. (See Table 1)
Table 1. Russian Labor Employed in Manufacturing [5]
Enterprises with Number of Employees (Percentage of Total Employment)
>250 50-249 <50
Russia 80 18 2
U.S. 63 18 19
Germany 54 24 22
Japan 49 25 26
France 45 22 33
Various self-proclaimed Marxists characterize Russia as a “dependent” or “peripherical” and suggest that Russia is dominated by or dependent of foreign monopolies (corporations, banks, etc.). [6] Of course, if it would be true that Russia’s economy is dominated by foreign (instead of domestic) monopolies, one could hardly talk about an imperialist state.
However, as we did demonstrate in our works, the opposite is the case. Russia’s economy is first and foremost dominated by Russian monopoly capital. A recently published academic book about Russia’s economy arrives at the conclusion that “the proportion of investment in Russian, foreign, and joint venture companies kept the same for the past five years: 86.3%, 7.3%, and 6.4%, respectively.” [7] (See Table 2)
Table 2. Share of Investment in Russia by Russian, Foreign, and Joint Venture Companies, 2015 [8]
Origin of Investment Share of Investment in Russia
Russian Companies 86.3%
Foreign Companies 7.3%
Joint Venture Companies 6.4%
This is also the case in the banking sector. Here too, it is Russian capital which dominates while foreign owners play only a subordinated role. In fact, in the past decade, the role of domestic capital has even increased. (See Table 3)
Table 3. Share of Foreign Banks in Russian Banking Sector, 2014 and 2018 [9]
2014 2018
Share of Foreign Banks 23% 13.44%
In summary, we can conclude that Russia’s economy is totally dominated by domestic monopolies. The extraordinary monopolization of its manufacturing sector (i.e. the core of capitalist value production) is the economic basis for the imperialist character of Russia’s economy. Hence, this is another confirmation of the RCIT’s analysis of Russia as an imperialist power. Its imperialist character is evident not only from its political and military features but also from its economy.
A brief historical analogy
Let us add, at the end, a brief discussion about an interesting historical analogy about similarities and dissimilarities of the global position of Russia’s economy. As it is well known, Marxist theoreticians considered Russia before 1917 as an imperialist power despite the backward development of its economy. Here are a few quotes from Lenin and Trotsky.
“In Russia, capitalist imperialism of the latest type has fully revealed itself in the policy of tsarism towards Persia, Manchuria and Mongolia, but, in general, military and feudal imperialism is predominant in Russia. In no country in the world are the majority of the population oppressed so much as in Russia.” [10]
“The last third of the nineteenth century saw the transition to the new, imperialist era. Finance capital not of one, but of several, though very few, Great Powers enjoys a monopoly. (In Japan and Russia the monopoly of military power, vast territories, or special facilities for robbing minority nationalities, China, etc., partly supplements, partly takes the place of, the monopoly of modern, up-to-date finance capital.)” [11]
“Only idiots or shrewd persons can deny that the war from Russia’s part has an extraordinary imperialist character. The whole political order of 3rd June has been an attempt to bring together the capitalist bourgeoisie with the bureaucratic machinery and the nobility – under the condition that the monarchy succeeds satisfying the international ambitions of Russian capital. (…) Russian imperialism, whose extraordinary counter-revolutionary character has been beyond doubt for all Russian social democrats, has played a huge role in the preparation of the present war.” [12]
In his major study about the history of the Russian Revolution, Trotsky pointed out the peculiar features of Russia’s capitalist economy. He emphasized the extraordinary concentration of capital in large enterprises – similar to the current configuration of Russian capital as we demonstrated above.
“But it is just in the sphere of economy, as we have said, that the law of combined development most forcibly emerges. At the same time that peasant land-cultivation as a whole remained, right up to the revolution, at the level of the seventeenth century, Russian industry in its technique and capitalist structure stood at the level of the advanced countries, and in certain respects even outstripped them. Small enterprises, involving less than one hundred workers, employed in the United States, in 1914, 35 percent of the total of industrial workers, but in Russia 17.8 percent. The two countries had an approximately identical relative quantity of enterprises involving one hundred to one thousand workers. But the giant enterprises, above 1000 workers each, employed in the United States 17.8 percent of the workers and in Russia 41.4 percent!“ [13]
However, Trotsky also emphasized another characteristic of Russia’s economy. “The confluence of industrial with bank capital was also accomplished in Russia with a completeness you might not find in any other country. But the subjection of the industries to the banks meant, for the same reasons, their subjection to the western European money market. Heavy industry (metal, coal, oil) was almost wholly under the control of foreign finance capital, which had created for itself an auxiliary and intermediate system of banks in Russia. Light industry was following the same road. Foreigners owned in general about 40 percent of all the stock capital of Russia, but in the leading branches of industry, that percentage was still higher. We can say without exaggeration that the controlling shares of stock in the Russian banks, plants, and factories were to be found abroad, the amount held in England, France, and Belgium being almost double that in Germany.” [14]
As we demonstrated above, this feature is largely absent today. Russia’s economy is no longer dominated by foreign capital but rather by domestic monopolies. This difference can be explained historically by the fact that capitalism in Russia was annihilated after 1917 by a successful socialist revolution. Hence, after the collapse of Stalinism and the restoration of capitalism in 1991, the new regime – in particular after Putin took power in 1999 – managed to consolidate a domestic monopoly bourgeoisie and to rebuild Russia as an imperialist power. [15]
We repeat that recognizing the imperialist character of Russia is essential to understand its role in world politics in the context of the inter-imperialist rivalry between the Great Powers. [16] It is equally essential in order to understand the necessity to defend the Ukrainian people against Putin’s reactionary invasion. [17]
[1] The RCIT has published numerous documents about capitalism in Russia and its rise to an imperialist power. See on this e.g. several pamphlets by Michael Pröbsting: The Peculiar Features of Russian Imperialism. A Study of Russia’s Monopolies, Capital Export and Super-Exploitation in the Light of Marxist Theory, 10 August 2021, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/the-peculiar-features-of-russian-imperialism/; by the same author: Lenin’s Theory of Imperialism and the Rise of Russia as a Great Power. On the Understanding and Misunderstanding of Today’s Inter-Imperialist Rivalry in the Light of Lenin’s Theory of Imperialism. Another Reply to Our Critics Who Deny Russia’s Imperialist Character, August 2014, http://www.thecommunists.net/theory/imperialism-theory-and-russia/; Russia as a Great Imperialist Power. The formation of Russian Monopoly Capital and its Empire – A Reply to our Critics, 18 March 2014, in: Revolutionary Communism No. 21, http://www.thecommunists.net/theory/imperialist-russia/; Russian Imperialism and Its Monopolies, in: New Politics Vol. XVIII No. 4, Whole Number 72, Winter 2022, https://newpol.org/issue_post/russian-imperialism-and-its-monopolies/; Once Again on Russian Imperialism (Reply to Critics). A rebuttal of a theory which claims that Russia is not an imperialist state but would be rather “comparable to Brazil and Iran”, 30 March 2022, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/once-again-on-russian-imperialism-reply-to-critics/. See various other RCIT documents on this issue at a special sub-page on the RCIT’s website: https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/china-russia-as-imperialist-powers/.
[2] In this context, we refer readers also to a new article by Alex Steiner which contains an interesting and insightful analysis of Russian imperialism (Alex Steiner: War in the Ukraine: the socialist response, Part I and II, http://forum.permanent-revolution.org/2022/04/war-in-ukraine-socialist-response-part-i.html and http://forum.permanent-revolution.org/2022/04/war-in-ukraine-socialist-response-part.html)
[3] V. I. Lenin: Imperialism and the Split in Socialism, pp. 105-106 (Emphasis in the original)
[4] Stephen Crowley: Who’s to Blame? Sanctions, Economic Hardship, and Putin’s Fear of Color Revolutions, PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo No. 767, April 2022, p. 4
[5] Stephen Crowley: Who’s to Blame? Sanctions, Economic Hardship, and Putin’s Fear of Color Revolutions, PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo No. 767, April 2022, p. 4
[6] See on this the pamphlet by Michael Pröbsting: Putin’s Poodles (Apologies to All Dogs). The pro-Russian Stalinist parties and their arguments in the current NATO-Russia Conflict, 9 February 2022, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/nato-russia-conflict-stalinism-as-putin-s-poodles/
[7] Veronika Chernova, Sergey U. Chernikov, Alexander Zobov, and Ekaterina Degtereva: TNCs in Russia: Challenges and Opportunities, in: Bruno S. Sergi (Ed.): Exploring the Future of Russia’s Economy and Markets: Towards Sustainable Economic Development, Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley 2019, p. 188
[8] Ibid, p. 188
[9] Victor Gorshkov: Fundamentals and Recent Trends in Russian Banking, in: Steven Rosefielde (Ed.): Putin’s Russia : Economy, Defence and Foreign policy, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore 2021, p. 81
[10] V.I. Lenin: Socialism and War. The Attitude of the R.S.D.L.P. toward the War (1915), in: LCW 21, p. 306
[11] V. I. Lenin: Imperialism and the Split in Socialism (1916); in: CW Vol. 23, p. 116
[12] Leon Trotsky: Über den russischen Imperialismus (1916), in: Leo Trotzki: Europa im Krieg, Arbeiterpresse Verlag, Essen 1998, pp. 203-204 (our translation). To our knowledge, this text has never been translated into English language.
[13] Leon Trotsky: History of the Russian Revolution (1932), Haymarket Books, Chicago, Illinois 2008, p. 8
[14] Ibid
[15] See on this our first analysis of Russia’s transformation into an imperialist power (“Political and Economic Problems of Capitalist Restoration in Russia”) which was written in the year 2001. It has been republished as an appendix in the above-mentioned pamphlet Russia as a Great Imperialist Power (2014).
[16] The RCIT has dealt on numerous occasions with the inter-imperialist rivalry of the Great Powers. See e.g. the RCIT document: World Perspectives 2021-22: Entering a Pre-Revolutionary Global Situation, 22 August 2021, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/world-perspectives-2021-22/; see also: RCIT: The Coming Inter-Imperialist War on Taiwan, 10 October 2021, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/the-coming-inter-imperialist-war-on-taiwan/; The Meaning of the AUKUS Pact. The U.S. escalates the inter-imperialist Cold War against China and provokes the EU, 18 September 2021, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/the-meaning-of-the-aukus-pact/; Russia Fires Warning Shots against UK Warship in the Black Sea. Down with Cold Warmongering! No support for any imperialist Great Power – neither UK, US nor Russia! 24 June 2021, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/russia-fires-warning-shots-against-uk-warship-in-black-sea/; see also the following book by Michael Pröbsting: Anti-Imperialism in the Age of Great Power Rivalry. The Factors behind the Accelerating Rivalry between the U.S., China, Russia, EU and Japan. A Critique of the Left’s Analysis and an Outline of the Marxist Perspective, RCIT Books, Vienna 2019, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/anti-imperialism-in-the-age-of-great-power-rivalry/; see also these two pamphlets by the same author: “A Really Good Quarrel”. US-China Alaska Meeting: The Inter-Imperialist Cold War Continues, 23 March 2021, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/us-china-alaska-meeting-shows-continuation-of-inter-imperialist-cold-war/; Servants of Two Masters. Stalinism and the New Cold War between Imperialist Great Powers in East and West, 10 July 2021, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/servants-of-two-masters-stalinism-and-new-cold-war/; for more works on this issue see these sub-pages: https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/china-russia-as-imperialist-powers/ and https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/collection-of-articles-on-the-global-trade-war/.
[17] We refer readers to a special page on our website where more than 60 RCIT documents on the current NATO-Russia conflict and the Ukraine War are compiled: https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/compilation-of-documents-on-nato-russia-conflict/. The most important documents are: RCIT Manifesto: Ukraine War: A Turning Point of World Historic Significance. Socialists must combine the revolutionary defense of the Ukraine against Putin’s invasion with the internationalist struggle against Russian as well as NATO and EU imperialism, 1 March 2022, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/manifesto-ukraine-war-a-turning-point-of-world-historic-significance/; RCIT: Ukraine War: An Action Program for Authentic Socialists, 1 March 2022, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/ukraine-war-an-action-program-for-authentic-socialists/; Medina Gunić: A new turning point in Russia’s invasion of the Ukraine, 25 February 2022, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/a-new-turning-point-in-russia-s-invasion-of-the-ukraine/; RCIT: Down with Putin’s Imperialist War against the Ukraine! Neither Russia nor NATO - against all imperialist powers! For an independent popular struggle to defend the Ukraine! For a workers government to defeat the Russian invaders! No to imperialist sanctions! For an independent socialist Ukraine! 24 February 2022, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/down-with-putin-s-imperialist-war-against-the-ukraine/; see also our joint statement with UIT-CI and LIT-CI, https://www.thecommunists.net/rcit/joint-statement-on-ukraine-war-13-3-2022/
러시아의 제국주의성을 확인해주는 추가 데이터
미하엘 프뢰브스팅, 혁명적 공산주의인터내셔널 동맹 (RCIT) 국제서기, 2022년 4월 21일, www.thecommunists.net
러시아 국가의 계급적 성격은 현재 운동진영 내 논쟁에서 중요한 쟁점이다. RCIT는 러시아가 자본주의 국가이며 또 제국주의 강대국임을 여러 문서를 통해 상세히 밝혀왔다. 우리는 러시아 제국주의가 몇 가지 고유의 특징을 가지고 있다고 설명했다.[1] 예를 들어, 세계경제에서 러시아의 비중은 러시아가 정치 또는 군사 영역에서 차지하는 역할·비중과 비교해서 훨씬 작다. [2]
그러나 우리는 순 경제적 관점에서 보더라도 러시아가 제국주의 국가라는 것에는 의심의 여지가 없다고 주장했다. 러시아 제국주의 규정은 레닌이 제시한 바의 맑스주의적 제국주의 이론과 완전히 부합한다. 맑스주의적 제국주의 분석의 출발점은 독점의 형성 및 경제에서 독점의 지배적 역할이다. 레닌은 제국주의에 관한 그의 가장 종합적인 논문인 <제국주의와 사회주의 내 분열>에서 다음과 같이 썼다.
“가능한 한 정확하고 완전한 제국주의 정의(定意)로부터 시작해야 한다. 제국주의란 자본주의의 특수 역사적 단계다. 그 특수성은 세 가지다. 제국주의는 (1) 독점 자본주의, (2) 기생적인, 또는 부패해가는 자본주의, (3) 사멸해가는 자본주의다. 독점이 자유경쟁을 대체했다는 것이 제국주의의 근본적인 경제적 특징이고 그 본질이다. 독점은 주되게 다섯 가지 형태를 취하며 나타난다. ① 카르텔 · 신디케이트 · 트러스트 — 이러한 독점적 자본가 집단을 낳을 정도로 생산의 집적이 이루어졌다. ② 대 은행들의 독점적 지위 一 서넛 내지 다섯 개의 거대 은행이 미국, 프랑스, 독일의 경제생활 전체를 지배하고 있다. ③ 트러스트와 금융과두제 (금융자본은 은행자본과 융합한 독점적 산업자본이다)가 원료자원을 장악하고 있다. ④국제적 카르텔에 의한 세계의 (경제적) 분할이 시작되었다. 그러한 국제적 카르텔은 이미 백 개도 넘는데, 이들이 세계시장 전체를 지배하며, 이 세계시장을 ‘사이좋게’ 분할하고 — 전쟁이 그것을 재분할할 때까지는 ‘사이좋게’ — 있다. 비독점 자본주의하에서의 상품수출과 구별되는, 매우 특징적인 현상으로서의 자본수출은 세계의 경제적 및 영토적·정치적 분할과 밀접하게 결합되어 있다. ⑤세계의 영토적 분할 (식민지)이 완료되었다.”[3]
러시아 경제에서 독점의 지배적 역할
이러한 이유로, 우리는 독점체들의 경제 지배가 해당 국가의 제국주의적 성격을 말해주는 핵심 지표임을 강조해왔다. 러시아 자본의 독점적 성격을 보여주는 몇 가지 흥미로운 통계자료를 제공하는 연구보고서가 최근 발표됐다. 이 보고서는 러시아에서의 자본집중도를 다른 제국주의 나라들에서의 자본집중도와 비교한다. 자본집중을 재는 척도로는, 제조 기업의 고용 규모를 보는데 고용 규모 250인 이상 기업, 50~249인 기업, 50인 미만 기업으로 등 세 범주로 나누어 살펴본다.[4]
분석 결과, 러시아는 어느 다른 제국주의 국가보다도 250인 이상 기업의 점유율이 높게 나타났다. 러시아에서는 전체 제조업 노동자의 80%가 250인 이상의 기업에서 일한다. 이에 비해 미국 63%, 독일 54%, 일본 49%, 프랑스 45%에 불과하다. 두 번째 범주 50-249인 기업으로 봐도 러시아가 자본집중도가 훨씬 크다. (아래 표 1 참조)
표 1. 제조업 고용 규모 [5]
250인 이상 50-249인 50인 미만
러시아 80% 18% 2%
미국 63% 18% 19%
독일 54% 24% 22%
일본 49% 25% 26%
프랑스 45% 22% 33%
여러 사회주의 자임 조직들이 러시아를 "종속 자본주의" "주변부 자본주의", 심지어는 “신식민지 경제”로 성격규정 하며, 러시아가 외국 독점체에 종속되어 있는 것처럼 말한다.[6] 물론, 러시아 경제가 (내국 독점체가 아니라) 외국 독점체에 의해 지배되고 있다는 것이 사실이라면, 제국주의 국가 운운할 수는 없을 것이다.
그러나 우리의 연구논문들에서 보여주었듯이, 실제로는 그 반대다. 러시아 경제는 무엇보다도 러시아 독점자본에 의해 지배되고 있다. “러시아의 총 투자액에서 내국 기업, 외국 기업, 합작 기업의 점유율은 각각 86.3%, 7.3%, 6.4%로 지난 5년 간 같은 비율을 유지했다.”[7] 은행 부문에서도 마찬가지다. 여기서도 러시아 자본이 지배적인 데 반해 외국인 소유주들은 부차적, 종속적인 역할을 할 뿐이다. 실제로 지난 10년 내국 자본의 역할은 더 커졌다. (2014년에 외국 은행의 점유율은 23%였던 것이 2018년 13.44%로 크게 떨어졌다).[8]
요약하면, 러시아 경제는 전적으로 내국 독점체에 의해 지배되고 있다고 결론 내릴 수 있다. 러시아 제조업 부문 (즉 자본주의적 가치 생산의 핵심부문)의 비상한 독점 고도화는 러시아의 제국주의 성을 떠받치는 경제적 토대다. 따라서 이것은 러시아를 제국주의 강대국으로 규정하는 RCIT 평가분석의 또 다른 확인이다. 러시아의 제국주의 성은 그 정치적·군사적 특징에서뿐만 아니라 이와 같이 경제에서도 명백하다.
간략한 역사 유비
끝으로 러시아 경제의 글로벌 지위와 관련하여 역사적으로 비슷한 점과 다른 점들을 간단히 비교 고찰해보자. 잘 알려져 있듯이, 레닌을 비롯한 맑스주의자들은 1917년 이전의 러시아를, 그 뒤떨어진 경제 발전에도 불구하고 제국주의 강대국으로 간주했다. 레닌은 <<제국주의론>>을 비롯하여 1914년 전후의 글들에서 한결같이 러시아를 제국주의 열강이라고 (프랑스와 같은 범주에서) 말했다. 레닌은 차르 러시아를 결코 스탈린주의 역사가들이 말하는 것처럼 반식민지로 (오스만제국, 중국, 페르시아와 같은 범주에서) 규정한 적이 없으며 일관되게 제국주의 강대국으로 성격규정 했다. 레닌은 각 강대국들 간의 차이를 확실히 인식하고 있었다. (보다 더 독립적인 열강과 보다 덜 독립적인 열강, 경제적으로 앞서간 열강과 뒤떨어진 열강 등등). 그럼에도 레닌은 러시아를 여타 제국주의 강대국들과 동일한 범주 속에 넣고 보았다. 다음과 같은 간단한 인용구들만을 보더라도 그렇다.
“러시아에서는 최신 유형의 자본주의적 제국주의가 페르시아·만주·몽골에 대한 차리즘의 정책 속에서 완전하게 모습을 드러냈지만, 일반적으로는 군사적·봉건적 제국주의가 우세하다. 세계 어느 나라에서도 주민 대다수가 러시아에서만큼 억압받고 있지는 않다.”[9] (<사회주의와 전쟁>)
“19세기의 마지막 3분의 1 기간은 새로운 시대, 제국주의 시대로 넘어가는 과도기였다. 하나의 강대국이 아니라, 몇몇 — 극소수이긴 하지만 — 강대국의 금융자본이 독점적 지위를 누린다. (일본과 러시아에서는 군사력의 독점이나 광대한 영토의 독점, 또는 소수 민족들과 중국 등등을 약탈하는 특별 편의에 대한 독점이 현대의, 최신의 금융자본의 독점을 부분적으로는 보완하고, 부분적으로는 대체한다.)”[10] (<제국주의와 사회주의 내의 분열>)
“평화 시에조차 러시아는 훨씬 더 잔인하고 중세적이며 경제적으로 후진적이며 군사-관료적인 제국주의로서 제 민족에 대한 억압에서 세계 신기록을 세웠다.”[11] (<민족자결에 관한 토론 총괄 정리>)
“부르주아적이고 동시에 제국주의적인 대국들 간의 이 전쟁은, 이들 대국 중 한 나라에서 군사적·절대주의적·봉건적인 제국주의가 급속히 일소되어 버린다 하더라도 그 성격이 조금도 바뀌지 않는다. 왜냐하면 그와 같은 조건에서는 순 부르주아적인 제국주의가 사라지는 것이 아니라, 오히려 힘이 더 세질 뿐이기 때문이다.”[12] (<국제주의적 언사로 위장한 사회배외주의 정책>)
“자본주의는 생산수단의 사적소유이며 생산의 무정부성이다. 이와 같은 기초 위에서 소득의 ‘공평한’ 분배를 주장하는 것은 다름 아닌 프루동주의이자, 우매한 속물주의다. 어떠한 분배도 오직 ‘힘에 비례해서만’ 이루어질 수 있으며, 힘은 경제적 발전의 추이에 따라 변화한다. 1871년 이후에 독일의 힘의 증강 속도는 영국과 프랑스에 비해 3배, 또는 4배 빨라졌고, 일본의 경우는 러시아에 비해 10배 정도 빨라졌다. 전쟁 말고 자본주의 나라의 실력을 확인하는 방법은 없으며, 있을 수도 없다. 전쟁은 사적소유의 기초와 모순되지 않으며, 오히려 전쟁은 그러한 기초에서 자라나온 직접적이고도 불가피한 결과물이다. 자본주의 하에서 개별 기업이나 개별 국가의 경제적 발전이 균등하게 성장한다는 것은 불가능하다. 자본주의 하에서는 산업에서의 공황과 정치에서의 전쟁 말고는 주기적으로 교란되는 균형을 회복할 다른 수단은 없다.”[13] (<유럽합중국 슬로건에 대하여>)
레닌은 1915년에 이탈리아 제국주의에 관해 논설 한편 전체를 할애했다. 레닌은 이탈리아 제국주의의 후진적 성격을 완전히 인식하고 있었지만 (이탈리아의 자본수출은 거의 없었고 이탈리아로 들어오는 이주자는 아예 없었다. 오히려 자본수입이 더 많았고 타국으로 빠져나가는 이민자들이 많았다), 그럼에도 이탈리아 국가의 제국주의적 성격을 강조했다.
“이탈리아 제국주의는 나라의 빈곤과 이탈리아 이민자들의 극단적인 궁핍으로 인해 ‘빈민 제국주의 (l’imperialismo della povera gente)’라고 불려왔다.”[14] (<이탈리아에서의 제국주의와 사회주의 (노트)>)
트로츠키 또한 차르 러시아를 일관되게 제국주의 강대국으로 규정했다.
“바보나 약삭빠른 사람만이 러시아 측에서 전쟁이 극히 제국주의적인 성격을 가지고 있다는 것을 부정할 수 있다. 6월 3일의 정치질서 전체는 자본주의 부르주아지를 관료기구 및 귀족과 결합시키려는 ㅡ 관료기구가